Self-Organized Vascular Networks from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells in a Synthetic Matrix

ABSTRACT

A bicellular vascular population derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) undergoes morphogenesis and assembly in a synthetic hydrogel. It is shown that hPSCs can be induced to co-differentiate into early vascular cells (EVCs) in a clinically-relevant strategy dependent upon Notch activation. These EVCs mature into ECs and pericytes, and self-organize to form vascular networks in an engineered matrix. Upon in vivo implantation, multicellular human vascular networks are functionally perfused. Thus, a derived bicellular population is exploited for its intrinsic self-assembly capability to create functional microvasculature in a deliverable matrix.

U.S. GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

The present invention was partially supported by the following grants: NIH grant F31HL112644, NIH grant 2R01HL073781, NIH grant R01HL107938 and NIH grant U54CA143868 and National Science Foundation grant 1054415; the United States government may have right to this invention.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO PRIOR APPLICATIONS

N/A.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Area of the Art

The present invention is in the area of pluripotent stem cells and more particularly deals with a method to differentiate a vascular network from stem cells.

2. Description of the Background Art

Perhaps the greatest roadblock to the success of tissue regenerative therapies is the establishment of a functional microvascular network to support tissue survival and growth (Discher et al., 2009). Microvascular construction or regeneration depends on endothelial morphogenesis into a three-dimensional, tubular network followed by stabilization of the assembling structures by recruited pericytes (Hanjaya-Putra et al., 2011; Stratman et al., 2009a). To create such a construct for therapeutic applications, patient-derived ECs and pericytes must be incorporated into a synthetic matrix, which confers the advantage to control and modulate vascular morphogenesis and simultaneously represents a clinically-relevant construct in which to deliver the engineered microvascular networks to in vivo environments (Vunjak-Novakovic and Scadden, 2011).

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and human induced PSCs (hiPSCs), offer the opportunity to derive EVCs from the same source, the latter of which offers patient specificity. Various cell markers have been proposed to identify vascular precursors (of ECs and pericytes) from differentiating hPSCs including CD34 (Ferreira et al., 2007; Park et al., 2010), KDR/VEGFR2 (Yang et al., 2008), and apelin receptor (Vodyanik et al., 2010). Purification of such progenitors is required from an uncontrolled differentiated cell population (i.e. via embryoid body [EB] formation or co-culture on mouse feeder layer) through marker enrichment or selection through genetic manipulation. Importantly, none of these derived cells have been demonstrated to self-assemble into functional microvasculature containing both ECs and pericytes.

Current approaches for the differentiation of hPSCs toward the vascular lineage build on the notion that a purified, single derivative—either a progenitor or matured cell type—is obligatory for the generation of functional vasculature. These approaches stem from the necessity to eliminate differentiation to undesirable lineages as well as to better understand the development of the vasculature. Indeed, from this body of work, it has become apparent that various cell markers and biochemical cues can be used to guide differentiation and derive functional ECs (Drukker et al., 2012; Ferreira et al., 2007; James et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2007), vascular smooth muscle cells (Drukker et al., 2012; Ferreira et al., 2007; Wanjare et al., 2012) and pericytes (Dar et al., 2011). Here we disclose a new conceptual approach in which the cells of the microvasculature are derived in a single, bipotent type population. The developed protocol employs a monolayer culture and avoids an EB intermediate and sorting, thereby ensuring reproducibility and clinical applicability. The derived bipotent population is able to work synergistically to recreate the tissue. Thus, we harness intrinsic tissue-level differentiation and self-assembly capabilities toward the translational realization of hPSCs. This new paradigm could prove useful for the construction of other multicellular tissues for regeneration.

The current disclosure demonstrates that hPSCs can be induced to differentiate into early derivatives of the vascular lineage (i.e. EVCs) that comprise the microvascular architecture without a specific differentiation-inducible feeder layer, EB formation, or genetic manipulation, and that such EVCs can mature into ECs and pericytes and can self-assemble to form functional vascular networks in an engineered matrix.

The ability to derive a multi-cell type population, which is then leveraged to form physiologically- and clinically-relevant vascular networks that are functionally perfused in vivo, is dependent upon activation of Notch signaling. Inhibition of Notch signaling promoted EC differentiation as depicted via VEcad enrichment. This discovery provides the groundwork for future studies into the importance of Notch signaling in in vitro vascular co-differentiation strategies. Our novel bicellular constructs represent a fundamental advancement to the future of cell-based therapies

The balance between commitment and plasticity of the EVCs specifically within the vascular lineage allows for vascular fate and functional network maturation. This controlled system is reproducible, generates physiologically relevant vascular networks in implantable matrices, and thus presents the next fundamental step toward patient-specific engineered tissue with clinically translatable potential.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

FIG. 1 shows derivation of EVCs from hPSCs. FIG. 1A, schema for self-assembled vascular derivatives. (i) hPSCs are differentiated toward EVCs that can be matured into functional ECs and pericytes. (ii) Derived EVCs are embedded within a synthetic HA matrix that facilitates self-organization into vascular networks. FIG. 1B, VEcad expression in day 12 differentiated hiPSC-MR31 cell line and hESC-H9 cell line comparing the three tested differentiation conditions (flow cytometry analysis; n=3). FIG. 1C, flow cytometry plots (n=3) of EVC derivatives assessing expression of CD105, CD146, CD73 with VE-cad (hiPSC-MR31); FIGS. 1D-E, flow cytometry plots (n=3) of EVCs assessing expression of pluripotent markers Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81, and hematopoietic marker CD45 (hiPSC-BC1). FIG. 1F, quantitative real time RT-PCR of H9-EVCs for the expression of SMMHC and peripherin compared to undifferentiated cells (d0) and mature derivatives (Lee et al., 2010; Wanjare et al., 2012). Isotype controls for flow cytometry are in gray. Flow cytometry results shown are typical of the independent experiments.

FIG. 2 shows EVC maturation and Notch signaling involvement. FIG. 2A, sorted VEcad+ from hiPSC-BC1-derived EVCs sub-cultured for an additional 6 days in SB431542-supplemented conditions and analyzed for the expression of VEcad, CD31 and CD146 (representative flow cytometry plots; n=3); FIG. 2B, sub-cultured sorted VEcad+ exhibited membrane localization of CD31 and VEcad (both in red), lectin binding (in green), cytoplasmic expression of eNOS, punctuated vWF, and uptake of AcLDL (in red). FIG. 2C, hiPSC-BC1-derived EVCs sub-cultured for an additional 6 days in pericyte-inducing conditions (Orlidge and D'Amore, 1987) were analyzed for the expression of NG2, CD73, PDFGR6, CD44, CD146 and CD105 via flow cytometry. In FIG. 2D cells exhibited appropriate localization of PDGFR6, NG2 and calponin (all in green) as demonstrated via immunofluorescence. Isotype controls for flow cytometry are in gray. Nuclei in blue. Results shown are typical of the independent experiment. Scale bars are 100 μm. FIG. 2D, quantitative real time RT-PCR of differentiating BC1 depicting expression of Notch1, Notch4, and D114 transcripts along differentiation. FIG. 2F, flow cytometry of VEcad expression along differentiation under DAFT-treated (orange) and control (red) conditions. FIG. 2G, quantitative real time RT-PCR demonstrating expression of VEcad and Id1 along the differentiation under DAFT-treated (red) and control (red) conditions.

FIG. 3 shows self-assembly of EVCs to multicellular networks in three dimensional matrix. FIG. 3A shows network formation from EVCs in (i) collagen and (ii) HA hydrogels. FIG. 3B shows sorted VEcad+ and VEcad− cells encapsulated within collagen gels were unable to form networks (VEcad− insert is an example of a cell with typical stellate morphology; phalloidin in green, nuclei in blue); scale bars are 100 μm. FIG. 3C shows that vacuole formation was observed after one day as evident by: (i) light microscopy (LM) and (ii) confocal images of vacuole vital stain, FM4-64, in red and nuclei in blue. Scale bar is 10 μm. FIG. 3D shows that on day 2, network formation with (i-ii) enlarged lumen and (iii-iv) cell sprouting were visualized by LM images (i and iii) and confocal images of FM4-64 in red and nuclei in blue (ii and iv). Scale bar in (i) and (iii) are 10 μm; in (ii) is 20 μm; and in (iv) is 50 μm. FIG. 3D shows that on day 3, complex networks were observed with enlarged and open lumen as indicated by confocal z-stacks and orthogonal sections of FM4-64 in red and nuclei in blue. Scale bar is 20 μm. FIG. 3F shows that after 3 days, multilayered structures were also detected as demonstrated by confocal 3D projection of NG2 (green), FM4-64 (red), and nuclei (blue) showing NG2+ pericyte (green) integrated with luminal structures. Images shown are typical of the independent experiment. Scale bar is 50 μm.

FIG. 4 shows perfusion of EVC networks in vivo in synthetic hydrogels. FIG. 4A shows that confocal images of two week explants of BC1-EVC networks in HA hydrogels demonstrate incorporation of human cells (red; arrows) into host vessels (green; arrows) and human cells exhibiting pericyte behavior (arrowhead). Scale bars are 50 μm. (i and ii: high mag of indicated regions) FIGS. 3B and 3C show histological examinations of the explants stained for CD31 expression via (FIG. 3B) immunofluorescence (CD31, red blood cells, and DAPI in red, green, and blue respectively; scale bar is 10 μm) and (FIG. 3C) immunohistochemistry (CD31 in brown, counterstain in blue; scale bar is 50 μm) reveal functional vessels containing human CD31+ cells with perfused blood cells. *perfused human vessel; # perfused mouse vessel FIG. 3D shows that quantification of cross-sectional areas and vessels per mm² of microvasculature containing human CD31+ cells depicts large perfused vessels and smaller non-perfused vessels in explants. FIG. 3E shows that immunofluorescence staining of sectioned explants for NG2+ (red) cells reveals functional human pericytes wrapping perfused vessels. Red blood cells in green, DAPI in blue. Scale bar is 10 μm.

FIG. 5 shows differentiating hPSCs. hiPSC-BC1 were differentiated in monolayer for 6 days and analyzed using flow cytometry analysis (n=3) for markers of interest including CD146, CD105, CD73 and VEcad. Isotype controls for flow cytometry are in gray. Results shown are for hiPSC-BC1 cell line and typical of the independent experiments.

FIG. 6 shows the effect of VEGF and TGFδ inhibitor on VEcad expression. hPSCs were differentiated in monolayer for 6 days followed by an additional 6 days in medium supplemented with and without SB431542 in low and high VEGF concentrations and analyzed using real-time PCR for VEcad expression (n=3). VEcad expression was upregulated with the addition of TGFβ inhibitor independently of VEGF concentrations in all hPSC lines tested. Significance levels were set at *p<0.05, **p<0.01, and ***p<0.001. Data are reported ±SEM.

FIG. 7 shows the effect of VEGF and TGFβ inhibitor on CD31 and VEGFR2 expression. hPSCs were differentiated in monolayer for 6 days followed by an additional 6 days in medium supplemented with and without SB431542 in low and high VEGF concentrations and analyzed using flow cytometry (n=3) for CD31 and VEGFR2 expression in (a) hESC-H9 and (b) hiPSC-MR31 lines. CD31 expression did not change in the different treatments, while VEGFR2 expression was upregulated in media supplemented with low VEGF concentration. Data are reported ±SEM.

FIG. 8 shows marker expression in EVCs. hPSCs were differentiated in monolayer for 12 days and EVC derivatives were analyzed using flow cytometry (n=3) assessing co-expression of CD105, CD146, CD73 with VE-cad from (a) hESC-H9 and (b) hiPSC-BC1 differentiated cells. (c) EVCs were also derived from a GFP transgenic hiPSC line (Haase et al., 2009) and confirmed for their marker expression profile by flow cytometry. Results shown are typical of the independent experiments.

FIG. 9 shows pluripotent and neuronal marker expression in EVCs. FIG. 9 a, hPSCs were differentiated in monolayer for 6 days followed by an additional 6 days in medium supplemented with and without SB431542 in low and high VEGF concentrations and analyzed using flow cytometry (n=3) for Tra-1-60 expression. Tra-1-60 expression was downregulated in all conditions examined. FIG. 9 b, H9-EVCs differentiated in media supplemented with SB431542 and using high VEGF concentrations were analyzed for the expression of Tuj1 using quantitative real time RT-PCR compared to undifferentiated cells (d0) and mature derivatives (Lee et al., 2010). Significance levels were set at *p<0.05, **p<0.01, and ***p<0.001. Data are reported ±SEM.

FIG. 10 shows EVCs derived using serum-free conditions. Flow cytometry (n=3) analysis of hiPSC-BC1-derivatives after 6 and 12 days of differentiation in serum-free conditions reveals marker expressions comparable to that of the standard differentiation scheme. Results shown are typical of the independent experiments.

FIG. 11 shows EC maturation. hiPSC-MR31-derived EVCs were sub-cultured for an additional 6 days in SB431542-supplemented conditions and analyzed for (FIG. 11 a) the expression of VEcad and CD31 expression (representative flow cytometry plots; n=3); and (FIG. 11 b) membrane localization of VEcad and CD31 (both in red), cytoplasmic expression of vWF and eNOS (both in green) and uptake of acLDL (in red). Nuclei are counterstained in blue. FIG. 11 c shows representative flow cytometry plots (n=3) of VEcad and CD31 expression in hiPSC-BC1- and hESC-H9-derived EVCs subcultured for an additional 6 days in SB431542-supplemented conditions. Isotype controls for flow cytometry are in gray. In FIG. 11 d, sorted VEcad+ cells from EVCs of the different hPSC-lines were sub-cultured for an additional 6 days in SB431542-supplemented conditions and analyzed for the expression of ICAM1 in response to TNFα. Significance levels were set at *p<0.05, **p<0.01, and ***p<0.001. Data are reported ±SEM.

FIG. 12. shows sorted VEcad− cells. Sorted VEcad− cells from hiPSC-BC1-derived EVCs sub-cultured for an additional 6 days in SB431542-supplemented conditions and analyzed for the expression of VEcad, CD31, and PDGFRβ (representative flow cytometry plots; n=3). Isotype controls for flow cytometry are in gray. Results shown are typical of the independent experiments.

FIG. 13 shows pericyte maturation and mesenchymal differentiation potential. FIG. 13 a, hiPSC-BC1-derived EVCs sub-cultured for an additional 6 days in pericyte-inducing conditions (Orlidge and D'Amore, 1987) were analyzed for the expression of CD31 and VEcad via flow cytometry (representative flow cytometry plots; n=3). Isotype controls for flow cytometry are in gray. Results shown are typical of the independent experiments. Derived pericytes differentiated into mesenchymal lineages including (FIG. 13 b) adipocytes (Oil Red O stain) and (FIG. 13 c) osteoblasts (Alizarin Red S stain). Scale bar is 50 μm.

FIG. 14 shows cord formation by EVCs in collagen gels. FIG. 14 a, EVC derivatives (hESC-H9) were encapsulated in collagen gels and cord-like structure formation was observed during the culture period. Scale bars are 100 μm. FIG. 14 b, EVCs were also derived from a GFP transgenic hiPSC line (Haase et al., 2009) and confirmed for their marker expression profile by flow cytometry.

FIG. 15 shows network formation of EVCs in HA matrix. BC1-EVCs were encapsulated in HA hydrogels and the kinetics of network formation was documented along the culture period with (FIG. 15 a) vacuole formation on day 1 as indicated by light microscopy (LM) images showing (i) low magnification (scale bar=100 μm; some vacuole are indicated by arrowheads) and (ii) high magnification of individual cells (scale bar is 5 μm); FIGS. 15 b-c, sprouting and initial network formation on day 2 as indicated by (FIG. 15 b) LM (scale bar is 100 μm) and (FIG. 15 c) serial confocal z-stack images of vacuole vital stain, FM4-64 (red) and nuclei (blue) (scale bar is 50 μm); and (FIG. 15 d) complex networks on day 3 as indicated by (i) light microscopy (scale bar is 100 μm), with enlarged and open lumen as indicated by (ii) confocal z-stacks and orthogonal sections of vacuole vital stain, FM4-64 (red) and nuclei (blue). Images shown are typical of the independent experiments.

FIG. 16 shows derived pericytes in the vascular networks. EVCs were encapsulated in HA hydrogels and after three days in culture, multilayer structures were detected as demonstrated by confocal microscopy of NG2 (green), vacuole vital stain FM4-64 (red), and nuclei (blue) showing (FIG. 16 a) pericytes integrated onto a hollow tubular structure (three dimensional projection) and (FIG. 16 b) enclosing a luminal structure (confocal z-stack). FIG. 16 c, Flow cytometry analysis (n=3) confirms that EVCs cultured in HA hydrogel culture media for three days acquire NG2 expression. Images shown are typical of the independent experiment. Inset is isotype control. Scale bar is 20 μm.

FIG. 17 shows in vivo functionality of EVCs. EVCs derived from (FIG. 17 a) BC1 and (FIG. 17 b) MR31 were dyed with PKH-26, implanted subcutaneously in Matrigel (MG) plugs and explants were analyzed after one week. Representative confocal z-stack images of perfused explants with fluorescein-conjugated GS-IB-4 lectin (green) show that EVCs integrated into host vasculature after one week (human cells in red). Some human vessels were not perfused (asterisk). Nuclei in blue. FIG. 17 c, Histological examination of BC1-MG explants after 1 week reveals functional microvasculature containing human CD31+ cells (brown; counterstain in blue) as indicated by blood cell perfusion. Scale bar is 50 μm.

FIG. 18 shows EC and pericyte phenotypes in in vivo explants of BC1-EVC HA constructs. EVCs derived from BC1 were dyed with PKH-26, encapsulated in HA hydrogels, and cultured for 3 days, after which were implanted subcutaneously. Confocal z-stack images of two week explants perfused with fluorescein-conjugated GS-IB-4 lectin (green) showing human cells (red) interacting with the host vessels (green) via (FIG. 18 a) incorporation into and (FIG. 18 b) wrapping around penetrating host vessels.

FIG. 19 shows derived pericytes in vivo. FIG. 19 a, Confocal images of two week explants of BC1-EVC networks in HA hydrogels reveals functional human NG2+ (green) pericytes proximal to host vessels (purple) in two week explants. Human cells are in red (PKH26). FIGS. 19 b-c, Histological examination of in vivo explants of hESC-H9-EVC networks in HA hydrogels after two weeks also depict NG2+ pericytes wrapping perfused vessels via (FIG. 19 b) immunofluorescence staining on cross sections of explants. Scale bar is 20 μm, and (FIG. 19 c) immunohistochemistry for NG2 (in brown; an example is indicated by arrow). Scale bar is 10 μm.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The following description is provided to enable any person skilled in the art to make and use the invention and sets forth the best modes contemplated by the inventor of carrying out his invention. Various modifications, however, will remain readily apparent to those skilled in the art, since the general principles of the present invention have been defined herein specifically to provide a method for causing pluripotent stem cells to differentiate into functional vascular networks.

Derivation of EVCs from hPSCs

Toward clinically relevant outcomes and because microvascular architecture is a bicellular entity, we first sought to develop a robust and controlled method to differentiate hPSCs into a bicellular population with maturation capacity to both ECs and pericytes. Vascular endothelial cadherin (VEcad) expression has been shown to specify lineage commitment of ECs (James et al., 2010), while CD105, CD146, and CD73 have been proposed to mark pericyte progenitors (Dar et al., 2011) though also expressed in mature ECs (Airas et al., 1995; Bardin et al., 2001; Duff et al., 2003). Acknowledging that co-cultures of pericytes and ECs typically result in pericyte-mediated EC growth inhibition (Dar et al., 2011; Orlidge and D'Amore, 1987), we focused on inducing VEcad+ cells early on in the differentiation scheme to ensure EC maturation. Using a step-wise differentiation procedure, hPSCs (listed in Table 1) were first allowed to undergo differentiation in monolayer (as seen in FIG. 5). The subsequent addition of transforming growth factor β inhibitor, SB431542 (James et al., 2010), supplemented with either high (50 ng/ml) or low (1 ng/ml) vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) concentrations yielded upregulation of VEcad expression, ranging from 20-70% VEcad+ cells (see FIG. 1 b and FIG. 6) depending on hPSC cell line. The expression levels of CD31 were not altered at the different conditions while VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR2/KDR) expression was higher in media supplemented with a low VEGF concentration (shown in FIG. 7). Greater than 95% of this cell population was positive for CD105 and CD146 in all cell lines examined, and about 80% of the cells expressed CD73 (see FIG. 1 c and FIG. 8). Expression of Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81, markers of pluripotency, was <1% when using high VEGF concentrations, indicating the vast majority of cells had been differentiated (see FIG. 1 d and FIG. 9 a). Thus, EVCs were differentiated in media supplemented with SB431542 and using high VEGF concentrations. EVCs were negative for hematopoietic marker CD45 (FIG. 1 e), and demonstrated negligible expression of smooth muscle cell marker, smooth muscle myosin heavy chain (SMMHC), as well as peripheral neuron markers, peripherin and Tuj1 (FIG. 1 f and FIG. 9 b). Comparable marker expression profiles were obtained from EVCs derived using serum free conditions in our adherent differentiation scheme (see FIG. 10). From these analyses, we considered this derived population to be vascular lineage specific.

TABLE 1 hPSC Reprogramming line Type factors Source Ref. H9 hESC — blastocyst (Thomson, 1998) H13 hESC — blastocyst (Thomson, 1998) MR31 hiPSC OSK IMR90 (normal, (Mali et al., fetal lung 2010) fibroblasts, XX) MMW2 hiPSC OSKM MSC1640 (Zou et al., (normal MSCs 2011) from 24 y/o, XY) BC1 hiPSC Plasmid encoding CD34+ cells (Cheng et al., OSKML from bone 2012; Chou et marrow al., 2011) GFP- hiPSC OSLN Cord blood- (Haase et al., hiPSC derived ECs 2009) O = OCT4; S = SOX2; K = KLF4; M = c-MYC; L = LIN28; N = NANOG

Differentiation Protocol.

Human PSCs were collected through digestion with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA; Promega), separated into an individual cell suspension using a 40-μm mesh strainer (BD Biosciences) and plated onto collagen IV (Trevigen) coated plates at a concentration of 5×10⁴ cells/cm². Cells were cultured for 6 days in a differentiation medium composed of alpha-MEM (Invitrogen), 10% FBS (Hyclone) and 0.1 mM β-mercaptoethanol (β-ME), with the media changed daily. On day 6, differentiated cells were collected through digestion with TrypLE (Invitrogen), separated with a 40-μm mesh strainer, and seeded at a concentration of 1.25×10⁴ cells/cm² on collagen-type-IV-coated plates in endothelial cell growth media (ECGM) (PromoCell) supplemented with 2% FBS, 50 ng/ml VEGF with or without TGF-β (10 μM SB431542 (Tocris)), or 1 ng/ml VEGF+10 μM SB431542 for 6 days. Media was changed every other day. For Notch studies, differentiating cells were treated with gamma secretase inhibitor, DAPT (10 μM; Sigma) for the second 6 days of differentiation. To elucidate whether serum-free conditions could be used to derive EVCs, we followed the aforementioned protocol except differentiating the cells in alpha-MEM media supplemented with 20% knockout serum replacement, 0.1 mM β-ME, 1× non-essential amino acids (Gibco), and 1× L-glutamine (Invitrogen) for 6 days, followed by 6 days in ECGM base media (Promocell) supplemented with 50 ng/ml VEGF, 10 μM SB431542, 10% knockout serum replacement, β-ME, essential amino acids, and glutamine. For this process the plates can be coated with a variety of suitable materials which include type I collagen and fibronectin as well as type IV collagen. SB431542 is a convenient TGF-β inhibitor for this process. Other TGF-β inhibitors or siRNA inhibition of TGF-β are also operational.

Maturation of EVCs: ECs

To examine the endothelial potential of hPSC-EVCs, two approaches were examined: we either sub-cultured EVCs or sorted and expanded VEcad+ cells, both under the same culture conditions (i.e., 50 ng/ml VEGF and SB431542). Sub-culturing yielded ECs that were enriched in VEcad and CD31 (FIGS. 11 a, b); however, this approach and enrichment without cell sorting varied among three different hPSC lines; a hiPSC line with vector integration gave rise to the best result as seen in FIG. 11 c. Sorted VEcad+ cells from EVCs matured toward VEcad+CD31+CD146+ECs as shown in FIG. 2 a. The cells exhibited typical membrane expression of VEcad and CD31, lectin binding, cytoplasmic expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and von Willebrand factor (vWF), uptake of acetylated low density lipoprotein (AcLDL), and upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1) in response to tumor necrosis factor α (FIG. 2 b and FIG. 11 d). Sorted VEcad− cells could not mature to ECs and acquired expression of PDGFRβ (FIG. 12). These data were consistent among the different hPSC lines examined.

Maturation of EVCs: Pericytes

We next probed the pericyte potential of the EVCs by culturing them under pericyte-maturing conditions (Orlidge and D'Amore, 1987). The EVCs were cultured on a suitable surface (unattached cells were removed after 4 hours). The medium contained 10% serum although lower serum levels with Angiopoietin 1 or TGFb-1 are also effective. After 6 days of culture, the cells were enriched in pericyte markers CD73, NG2, platelet-derived growth factor β (PDGFRβ), and CD44 (Crisan et al., 2012) and depleted in EC markers VEcad and CD31 (FIG. 2 cand FIG. 13 a). Interestingly, most cells remained CD146+, but some cells lost CD105 expression (FIG. 2 c). The spindle-shaped pericyte derivatives expressed PDGFRβ and NG2 proteoglycan and exhibited filamentous calponin expression (FIG. 2 d), as expected for pericytes derived from fetal and adult sources. An important functionality of pericytes is their ability to behave as mesenchymal precursors (Crisan et al., 2008; Dar et al., 2011). Indeed, the pericyte derivatives in our culture could be differentiated to adipocytes and osteoblasts (see FIGS. 13 b and 13 c), demonstrating their mesenchymal potential. Taken together, the cellular analyses demonstrate that EVCs, which are CD105+CD146+ enriched for CD73 and VEcad contain the cellular makeup imperative to construct a functional microvasculature.

Putative Role of Notch Signaling

Previous studies have demonstrated that Notch cell-cell signaling is imperative for blood vessel development and stability (Hofmann and Iruela-Arispe, 2007; Sainson and Harris, 2008). Specifically, Notch4 and Notch ligand, Delta-like ligand 4 (Dll4), are particularly restricted to the vascular lineage with critical importance on heterotypic signaling between pericytes and ECs. To determine whether Notch signaling promotes co-differentiation toward a bicellular population, we monitored the expression of Notch receptors, Notch1 and Notch4, over the course of differentiation. We found that Notch4 expression increased over the differentiation, whereas Notch1 expression remained stagnant (FIG. 2 e). Based on these findings, we also assayed for Dll4, which followed a similar trend to Notch4 expression (FIG. 2 e). Using γ-secretase inhibitor, N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl)-L-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester (DAPT), to inhibit Notch signaling yielded enrichment in VEcad+ cells compared to control conditions (FIG. 2 f), with upregulation of both VEcad and Id1 transcripts under DAPT treatment (FIG. 2 g). Notch signaling has been demonstrated to block EC proliferation. Thus we speculate inhibition of Notch may be impeding heterotypic cell signaling and promoting the proliferation of derived ECs through the differentiation period. Furthermore, inhibition of Notch signaling via the Dll4 receptor has been demonstrated to inhibit the potential of stem cells to mature toward pericytes (Stewart et al., 2011). Overall, our data supports numerous in vitro and in vivo studies suggesting the importance of Notch4 and Dll4 in vascular development (Sainson and Harris, 2008).

Self-Organization of Bicellular Vascular Networks in Hydrogels

To examine whether EVCs exhibit self-organizing capability into a bicellular microvascular bed, we tested network formation in collagen (Stratman et al., 2009a; Stratman et al., 2009b) and in completely synthetic hyaluronic acid (HA)-based hydrogel (Hanjaya-Putra et al., 2011) (FIG. 3A). We reasoned that derived EVCs would be able to work synergistically to form stable vascular networks in a three-dimensional matrix. Indeed, in both hydrogel systems, EVCs were found to form lavish networks (FIG. 3A); sorted VEcad+ or VEcad− cells were individually unable to form such networks when encapsulated within collagen gels (FIG. 3B). VEcad+ cells primarily formed vacuoles with some instances of sprouting (average circularity of 0.70±0.15 versus 0.36±0.23 for EVCs; FIG. 3B). VEcad-cells exhibited cell spreading and a characteristic stellate morphology, but no network formation.

Vascular Morphogenesis of EVCs within HA Hydrogels

We next examined the mechanism by which EVC networks were formed within the HA hydrogel, a xeno-free, synthetic, construct engineered to recapitulate tubulogenesis-inducing signals (Hanjaya-Putra et al., 2011). In vitro assessment of cellular behavior revealed the formation of multicellular networks via a sequential process typical of vascular morphogenesis. After one day of culture, we observed vacuole formation in many, but not all, of the cells. Some of these vacuoles had coalesced into a larger structure, resembling lumen (FIG. 3A and FIG. 15 a). After two days of culture, we could observe the progression of tubulogenesis including extensive sprouting and occasions of open lumen (FIG. 3 b and FIG. 15 b). By day 3, vascular networks grew; we clearly observed comprehensive multicellular networks within HA hydrogels. Complex vascular networks with patent lumen structures were easily detected throughout the hydrogels, suggesting a mature vascular network (FIG. 3C and FIG. 15 c). Interestingly, on day 3 we could also observe instances of NG2+ pericytes incorporated in the luminal structures and encircling the forming tubular structures (FIG. 3D and FIG. 12).

Functionality of hPSC-Bicellular Vascular Constructs

In vivo functionality is crucial to the success of derived EVCs for regenerative medicine endeavors. We first tested whether EVCs will survive implantation, assemble into vascular networks, integrate with the host vasculature, and establish blood flow. Using a Matrigel plug assay (Ferreira et al., 2007), human EVCs incorporated with perfused host microvasculature, as well as generated human-only microvascular structures (see FIG. 17). To harness the self-organizing capability of EVCs in HA hydrogels, we subcutaneously implanted the engineered vascular networks and assessed their functionality. Human cells were found to incorporate into or wrap around the mouse microvasculature (FIG. 4A and FIG. 18). Perfused microvasculatures containing human ECs (with cross-sectional areas ranging from 100 to 25,000 μm²) were abundant throughout the explant (˜15 vessels per mm²), demonstrating that the transplanted human vascular networks were functional and had anastomosed with the hosts' circulatory systems (FIGS. 4B-D). Moreover, NG2+ human pericytes were found to migrate towards and encircle the perfused vasculature (FIG. 4E and FIG. 19).

Experimental Procedures:

hPSC Culture.

Human ESC lines H9 and H13 (passages 15 to 40; WiCell Research Institute, Madison, Wis.) and hiPSC lines MR31 (Mali et al., 2010), MMW2 (Zou et al., 2011), BC1 (Cheng et al., 2012; Chou et al., 2011), and a GFP transgenic hiPSC line (Clone 26 hCBiPS aMHCneoPGKhygro+pCAGGS2 Passage 47+10, kindly provided by Dr. Ulrich Martin, Hannover Medical School, Germany) (Haase et al., 2009) were cultured as previously described (Vo et al., 2010; Wanjare et al., 2012). Cell lines were routinely examined for pluripotent markers using immunofluorescence staining and flow cytometry analysis for TRA-1-60, TRA-1-81, SSEA4, and Oct4. See Table 1 (above) for details on the various hPSCs.

Flow Cytometry.

Flow cytometry was performed as previously described (Kusuma et al., 2012). Briefly, cells were incubated with FITC- or PE-conjugated antigen specific antibodies for markers (see Table 2 for antibody types and sources). All analyses were done using corresponding isotype controls. Forward versus side light scatter plots were used to exclude dead cells. User guide instructions were followed to complete the flow cytometry analysis via Cyflogic v1.2 software.

TABLE 2 Host Species & Antibody Source Catalog # Purpose Reactivity Concentration AcLDL Invitrogen L-3484 IF ECs 10 μg/ml Alexa Fluor 488 Invitrogen A11008 IF Goat anti-rabbit 1:1,000 Calponin Dako M3556 IF Mouse anti-human 1:100 CD105-PE eBioscience 12-1057-41 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 CD146-PE BD 550315 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 CD31 Dako M0823, clone JC70/A IF; IHC Mouse anti-human 1:200; 1:50 CD31-PE BD 555446 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 CD44-PE BD 550989 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 CD45-PE BD 555483 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 CD73-PE eBioscience 12-0739-41 Clone AD2 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 Cy3 Sigma C2181-1ML IF Sheep anti-mouse 1:50 Dapi Roche 10236276 IF Nucleus 1:1,000 eNOS BD 610297 IF Mouse anti-human 1:100 FITC Sigma F2883 IF Sheep anti-mouse 1:50 IgG-Alexa Fluor 488 eBioscience 53-4724-80 Clone FC Mouse IgG Isotype 1:10 eMB2a control IgG-FITC BD 554679 FC Mouse IgG Isotype 1:10 Control IgG-PE BD 555749 FC Mouse IgG Isotype 1:10 Control HRP-secondary Dako K4063 IHC HRP polymer anti- 1:1 mouse NG2 Santa Cruz sc-53389 IF; IHC Mouse anti-human 1:100 NG2-Alexa Fluor 488 eBioscience 53-6504-82 Clone FC; IF Mouse anti-human 1:10; 1:100 9.2.27 PDGFRβ Santa Cruz SC-432 IF Rabbit anti-human 1:100 PDGFRβ-PE R&D FAB1263P FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 Tra-1-60-FITC BD 560380 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 Tra-1-81-FITC BD 560194 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 Ulex lectin Vector Lab FL-1061 IF Human ECs 1:50 VEcad Santa Cruz sc-9989 IF Mouse anti-human 1:200 VEcad-FITC BD 560411 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 VEcad-PE BD 560410 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 VEGFR2-PE BD 560494 FC Mouse anti-human 1:10 vWF Dako M0616 Clone F8/86 IF Mouse anti-human 1:200

Real-Time Quantitative RT-PCR.

Two-step reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed on differentiated and undifferentiated (day 0) hPSCs as previously described in accordance with Applied Biosystems' instructions (Kusuma et al., 2012). For each primer set (VEcad, SMMHC, Tuj1, peripherin, ICAM, Id1, NOTCH1, NOTCH4, DLL4), we used the comparative computerized tomography method (Applied Biosystems) to calculate the amplification differences between different samples. The values for experiments were averaged and graphed with standard deviations.

Immunofluorescence.

Cells were prepared for immunofluorescence as previously described (Kusuma et al., 2012). Briefly, fixed cells were blocked in 1% BSA, treated with 0.1% Triton-X (Sigma), and incubated with the antigen specific antibodies for the markers (see Table 2), followed by an appropriate secondary antibody, and DAPI (Roche Diagnostics) to label nuclei. The immunolabeled cells were examined using a fluorescent microscope (Olympus BX60).

EC Maturation.

On day 12, derived EVCs were either sub-cultured in differentiation medium or sorted for VEcad+ cells. For this, EVCs were collected through digestion with Magnetic Activated Cell Sorting (MACS) buffer (0.5M EDTA and 1% BSA in PBS), incubated with 10 ul anti-human, PE-conjugated VEcad (BD) in MACS buffer for 45 minutes on ice, washed, incubated with 20 ul anti-PE microbeads (Miltenyi Biotec) in 80 ul MACS buffer for 15 minutes at 4° C., and washed twice. Cells were re-suspended in 500 μl MACS buffer and separated using a MS MACS separation column (Miltenyi Biotec). VEcad enrichment or depletion was confirmed by flow cytometry. Sorted cells were cultured on collage-type-IV-coated dishes for an additional 6 days in ECGM supplemented with 50 ng/ml VEGF and 10 μM SB431542. Media was changed every other day.

Dil-Labeled AC-LDL Uptake.

Derived ECs were incubated with 10 μg/ml Dil-labeled Ac-LDL (Invitrogen) for 4 hours at 37° C., rinsed three times with PBS, fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 30 minutes, and visualized using a fluorescence microscope (Olympus).

Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (TNF-α) Activation.

A previously established protocol for the activation of ECs was used (Dickinson et al., 2010). Briefly, cultured cells were stimulated for 24 hours with 10 ng/ml tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α; R&D) or blank as a control and analyzed for ICAM (Applied Biosystems).

Pericyte Maturation.

We followed a published protocol for pericyte maturation (Orlidge and D'Amore, 1987). On day 12, derived EVCs were collected through digestion with TrypLE and re-plated on tissue culture treated 6 well plates in media comprised of DMEM and 10% FBS. After 2-3 hours, unattached cells were removed and media was replaced. Cells were cultured for 6 days, changing the media every second day.

Mesenchymal Differentiation (Adipogenic and Osteogenic).

For adipogenic differentiation (Pittenger et al., 1999), we cultured derived pericytes at 10,000 cells/cm² in media comprised of DMEM, 10% FBS, 1% Penicillin/Streptomycin, 200 μM Indomethacin, 500 μM 3-Isobutyl-1-methyl xanthine (IBMX), and 5 μg/ml Insulin (all from Sigma) for 4 weeks. To assess adipogenic potential, cells were fixed with 3.7% formaldehyde, and then dehydrated with 60% isopropanol for 5 minutes. Cells were incubated with Oil Red O (Sigma) at 1.8 mg/ml in 60/40 isopropanol/DI H₂O, for 10 minutes and imaged using an inverted light microscope (Olympus).

For osteogenic differentiation (Grayson et al., 2010), we cultured derived pericytes at 5,000 cells/cm² in media comprised of low glucose DMEM, 10% FBS, 1% Penicillin/Streptomycin, 10 mM β-glycerophosphate, 100 nM dexamethasone, and 50 μM ascorbic acid (all from Sigma) for 2 weeks. Media were prepared fresh weekly. To assess osteogenic potential, samples were fixed with 3.7% formaldehyde, and washed with DI H₂O, Samples were incubated with Alizarin Red S (40 mM in DI H₂O, pH ˜4.2; Sigma) for 10-20 minutes.

Collagen Gel Assay.

Collagen gels (7.1 mg/ml, BD Biosciences) were prepared as previously described (Abaci et al., 2011). EVCs, VEcad+, or VEcad-cells were encapsulated at a density of 2 million cells/ml. ECGM supplemented with 50 ng/ml VEGF was added to the gels after 30 minutes at 37° C. in a CO₂ incubator. Visualization and image acquisition were performed using an inverted light microscope (Olympus).

Synthesis of HA Gels.

Acrylated hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels were prepared as previously reported (Hanjaya-Putra et al., 2011; Khetan and Burdick, 2010; Khetan et al., 2009). Derived EVCs were encapsulated in HA hydrogels at a density of 4×10⁶ cells/ml and cultured for up to three days in endothelial growth media 2 (EGM2; Lonza). Visualization and image acquisition were performed using an inverted light microscope (Olympus) and a confocal microscope (LSM 510 Meta; Carl Zeiss, Inc.) along the culture. We performed FM-464 vacuole staining (Invitrogen) following the manufacturer's protocol (Hanjaya-Putra et al., 2011). To test parallel differentiation, EVCs were also cultured in adherent culture in EGM 2 (Lonza) for 3 days with media changed daily.

Subcutaneous Implantation of Cells.

PSC-derived cells were labeled with PKH-26 (red) according to the manufacturer's protocol and as previously (Wanjare et al., 2012). PKH-26 labeled cells, which were re-suspended with Matrigel (BD Biosciences) and 50 ng/ml bFGF or engineered vascular networks in HA gels for 3 days were implanted subcutaneously into nude 6-8 week old female mice in quadruplicate. To visualize angiogenesis in the implants prior to sample removal after 2 weeks, we injected Alexa Fluor® 488 (or, in some instances, Alexa Fluor® 647) conjugated isolectin GS-IB4 from Griffonia simplicifolia (Invitrogen) through the tail veins of the mice (Kang et al., 2011). After 20 minutes, mice were euthanized by CO₂ asphyxiation and the explants were harvested and fixed in 3.7 percent formaldehyde (Sigma) and proceeded for visualization and sectioning. The Johns Hopkins University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee approved all animal protocols.

Histology.

The fixed explants were dehydrated in graded ethanol (70%-100%), embedded in paraffin, serially sectioned using a microtome (5 μm), and stained with immunohistochemistry for anti-human CD31 (Dako) and anti-human NG2 (Santa Cruz) (Hanjaya-Putra et al., 2011; Mead et al., 2007). Mouse tissue was used as controls. Blood vessels containing human CD31 cells were counted and measured using ImageJ (NIH). We sampled a minimum of 6 images for each construct.

Graphs and Statistics.

All analyses were performed in triplicate samples for n=3 at least. Real-time RT-PCR were also performed on triplicate samples (n=3) with triplicate readings. One Way ANOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc test were performed to determine significance (GraphPad Prism 4.02).

The following claims are thus to be understood to include what is specifically illustrated and described above, what is conceptually equivalent, what can be obviously substituted and also what incorporates the essential idea of the invention. The illustrated embodiment has been set forth only for the purposes of example and that should not be taken as limiting the invention. Therefore, it is to be understood that, within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced other than as specifically described herein.

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What is claimed is:
 1. A method for differentiating mammalian pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into early vascular cells (EVCs) in vitro, comprising the steps of: plating a single-cell suspension of PSCs onto a suitable surface; adding culture medium culturing the cells for several days; adding VEGF and a transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) inhibitor to the culture medium; culturing the cells for several days; and harvesting the resulting EVCs.
 2. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 1, wherein the TGF-β inhibitor is SB431542.
 3. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 1, wherein the concentration of VEGF is between about 1 and 50 ng/ml.
 4. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 1, wherein the suitable surface is selected from the group consisting of type I collagen, type IV collagen and fibronectin.
 5. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 1, wherein the media used for culturing are supplemented with serum.
 6. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 5, wherein the media are supplemented with 10% serum.
 7. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 1, wherein prior to the step of adding VEGF the cells are harvested from the suitable surface and then plated onto a suitable surface with VEGF in the culture medium.
 8. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 1, further comprising a step of embedding the EVCs in a hydrophilic matrix following the step of harvesting.
 9. The method for differentiating EVCs of claim 8, wherein the hydrophilic matrix is a hydrogel selected from the group consisting of hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel and collagen hydrogel.
 10. A method for differentiating mammalian pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) towards a population that can self-organize into vascular networks in vitro, comprising the steps of: plating a single-cell suspension of PSCs onto a suitable surface; adding culture medium culturing the cells for several days; adding VEGF and a transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) inhibitor to the culture medium; culturing the cells for several days; harvesting the resulting cells; and embedding the harvested cells in a hydrophilic matrix.
 11. The method for differentiating of claim 10, wherein the hydrophilic matrix is a hydrogel selected from the group consisting of hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel and collagen hydrogel.
 12. The method for differentiating of claim 10, wherein the TGF-β inhibitor is SB431542.
 13. The method for differentiating of claim 10, wherein the concentration of added VEGF ranges from 1 to 50 ng/ml.
 14. The method for differentiating of claim 10, wherein the suitable surface is type IV collagen.
 15. The method for differentiating of claim 10, wherein the media used for culturing are supplemented with serum.
 16. The method for differentiating of claim 15, wherein the media are supplemented with 10% serum.
 17. The method for differentiating of claim 10, wherein prior to the step of adding VEGF the cells are harvested from the suitable surface and then plated onto a suitable surface with VEGF in the culture medium.
 18. A method for differentiating mammalian pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into early epithelial cells (ECs) in vitro, comprising the steps of: plating a single-cell suspension of PSCs onto a suitable surface; adding culture medium culturing the cells for several days; adding VEGF and a transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) inhibitor to the culture medium; culturing the cells for several days; and sub-culturing the resulting EVCs or sub-culturing VEcad+ cells sorted from the EVCs in a medium containing VEGF and TGF-β inhibitor.
 19. A method for differentiating mammalian pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into pericyte cells in vitro, comprising the steps of: plating a single-cell suspension of PSCs onto a suitable surface; adding culture medium culturing the cells for several days; adding VEGF and a transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta inhibitors-β) inhibitor to the culture medium; culturing the cells for several days; harvesting the resulting EVCs; and sub-culturing EVCs in a medium containing serum on a tissue-culture treated surface and removing unattached cells after 4 hours.
 20. The method for differentiating of claim 19, wherein the medium for sub-culturing EVCs also contains Angiopoietin 1 or TGFb-1. 